Bridges-Across: Stephen Russell's Research

National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health

Stephen Russell's Research on Adolescent Sexual Orientation

Papers

Russell, Stephen T., and Kara Joyner. (In press). “Adolescent Sexual Orientation and Suicide Risk: Evidence from a National Study.” American Journal of Public Health.

Russell, Stephen T., Brian Franz, and Anne K. Driscoll. (In press). “Same-Sex Romantic Attraction and Violence Experiences in Adolescence.” American Journal of Public Health.

Russell, Stephen T., Hinda Seif, and Nhan Truong. (In press). “School Outcomes of Sexual Minority Youth in the United States: Evidence from a National Study.” Journal of Adolescence.

Russell, Stephen T., and Nhan Truong. (In press). “Adolescent Sexual Orientation, Race and Ethnicity, and School Environments: A National Study of Sexual Minority Youth of Color.” For Kevin Kumashiro, Ed., Troubling Intersections of Race and Sexuality: Queer Students of Color and Anti-Oppressive Education

School Outcomes of Sexual Minority Youth in the United States:
Evidence from a National Study

Russell, Stephen T., Hinda Seif, and Nhan Truong. (In press). “School Outcomes of Sexual Minority Youth in the United States: Evidence from a National Study.” Journal of Adolescence

Abstract
Using data from the Add Health Study, the first nationally representative study of adolescents in the U.S. to include information on sexual orientation, we examine school outcomes (school troubles, attitudes, and performance) of sexual minority youth within the context of four relational domains: family, teacher, social, and peer. Results indicate that each domain plays a role in the negative attitudes about school held by sexual minority youth. However, sexual minority youths’ feelings about their teachers play an important role in explaining school troubles.

Some Excerpts:
Data Source
The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health ("Add Health") is the most recent, comprehensive study of adolescents in the U.S. (Bearman, Jones & Udry, 1997). More than 11,000 7th to 12th grade students and one parent (usually a mother) participated in the first wave of this study. We limit our analyses to adolescents between ages 12 and 19. Further, because parental reports of the parent/child relationship are critical to our hypotheses, we limited the sample to cases with complete parental reports.
...
Portions of the interview, including information on sexual orientation, were collected through the use of Audio-CASI (audio computer-aided self-interview). Respondents listened to questions through earphones, and their responses were recorded on a laptop computer. Past studies report a high level of self-disclosure bias in interviewer-administered surveys on sensitive behavior; interviewing methods that afford greater privacy have been found to result in higher reporting rates. Specifically, the Audio-CASI method has been demonstrated to reduce the potential for interviewer or parental influence on the responses of adolescents

Results
Among the youth of the Add Health Study, 7.4% of boys and 5.3% of girls reported same-sex romantic attraction. While more boys than girls reported same-sex attractions, fewer boys reported exclusively same-sex attraction compared to girls (boys: same-sex=.7%, both sexes=6.5%; girls: same-sex=1.5%; both sexes=3.8%).

Conclusions:
We are surprised at the degree to which youth reporting bisexual attractions stand out in our results. Recently, researchers have begun to examine the first representative samples of sexual minority youth in the U.S. Perhaps preconceptions of single-sex sexual orientation may now be challenged. Among the few population-based studies that include information on sexual orientation, bisexual, unlabeled, and questioning youth are more frequent in the samples than are gay- or lesbian-identified youth . This is also the case in the Add Health Study. We find that for many of our relational domains, the strongest effects are for girls and boys reporting bisexual attractions.
...
Because of the importance of multiple perspectives on the family relationships of the youth of the Add Health Study, we included parental reports of the parent / child relationship. Because our measure of sexual orientation did not allow us to identify youth that identify themselves to family as gay, lesbian, or bisexual, we were surprised to find that parent reports did differ significantly by sexual orientation group. It seems unlikely that even the majority of the youth in our sexual minority categories have disclosed sexual orientation to family members. As a result, our results are probably under-estimates of the differences between GLB-identified youth and their heterosexual peers. Yet, consistent with girl’s own perceptions of their maternal relationship, responding mothers rated their relationships with sexual minority girls – particularly those who reported exclusive same-sex-attraction – much more negatively than did mothers of other girls. Most past studies have been conducted from either the point of view of the parent or the child; rarely are sexual minority youth and their parents included in the same study. This finding persuades us of the critical need for support for mothers when daughters come to terms with a minority sexual orientation.
...
Perhaps the most important implication for schools in the U.S. is the finding that relationships with teachers play a leading role in explaining the school troubles experienced by sexual minority adolescents (specifically those reporting bisexual attraction). Youth with positive feelings about their teachers were significantly less likely than their peers to experience the broad range of school troubles. Supportive teachers can help prevent school troubles of sexual minority youth; teachers need the awareness and training to help them be supportive of their sexual minority students.

Our results are consistent with much of the past research on LGB-identified youth; sexual minority youth of the Add Health Study reported compromised relationships across four important domains, as well as negative school outcomes. Our study highlights the importance of attention to variability within the sexual minority group. It is possible that some of the consistent results of past research on negative outcomes for sexual minority youth may be driven by the experiences of bisexual youth. Finally, by making use of data from the comprehensive, national survey, we are able to demonstrate mechanisms where schools and communities might begin to make a difference for sexual minority youth. Our findings underscore the important role that parents, teachers, and other adults play in the lives of adolescents, and the critical need for education for these adults about the challenges that many sexual minority youth face in their daily lives.

Adolescent Sexual Orientation and Suicide Risk:
Evidence from a National Study
Russell, Stephen T., and Kara Joyner. (In press). “Adolescent Sexual Orientation and Suicide Risk: Evidence from a National Study.” American Journal of Public Health.

Abstract
Objectives. Sexual orientation has been a debated risk factor for adolescent suicide in the past 20 years. The link between sexual orientation and suicidality is examined in this study using data that: (1) are nationally representative, and (2) include other critical youth suicide risk factors.
Methods. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) are examined. Survey logistic regression is used to control for sample design effects.
Results. There is a strong link between adolescent sexual orientation and suicidal thoughts and behaviors. The strong effect of sexual orientation on suicidal thoughts is mediated by critical youth suicide risk factors, including depression, hopelessness, alcohol abuse, recent suicide attempts by a peer or a family member, and experiences of victimization.
Conclusions. The findings provide strong evidence that sexual minority youth are more likely than their peers to think about and attempt suicide.

Adolescent Sexual Orientation and Violence:
Understanding Victimization and Violence Perpetration

Russell, Stephen T., Hinda Seif, and Nhan Truong. (In press). “School Outcomes of Sexual Minority Youth in the United States: Evidence from a National Study.” Journal of Adolescence.

Abstract

Objectives. Recent national attention to hate crimes committed against lesbian and gay youth has highlighted the need to understand the violence experiences of this group of adolescents. Using nationally representative data, we examine the associations between sexual orientation and victimization, as well as same-sex sexual orientation youths’ risk for witnessing violence and perpetrating violence against others.
Methods. Data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health) are examined. Survey logistic regression is used to control for sample design effects.
Results. Analyses indicate that sexual orientation is a significant risk factor for the experience of extreme forms of violence. Regardless of sociodemographic characteristics, youth reporting same-sex sexual orientation are also more likely to be witnesses of violence. Finally, the high levels of violence perpetration by these youth can be explained in large part by the victimization they experience.
Conclusions. The findings provide strong evidence that sexual orientation is a risk factor for experiencing victimization. These violent experiences have significant implications for violent behavior.

Adolescent Sexual Orientation, Race and Ethnicity, and School Environments:
A National Study of Sexual Minority Youth of Color

Abstract
In this chapter we explore adolescents' attitudes, experiences, and expectations regarding education and schooling, and how these attitudes and experiences affect academic performance and self-esteem. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we focus on the sexual and racial/ethnic minority statuses of White, Hispanic, African American, and Asian American youth. We explore differences in academic success and self-esteem among these groups. With attention to the unique challenges faced by racial / ethnic sexual minority youth, our results provide the basis for recommendations on improving educational environments for all students.

Excerpt --
Implications

Little empirical research that has been conducted in the past has examined the school lives of queer youth, and even less has given attention to queer youth of color. Our study is a first, cursory examination of national-level data on race / ethnicity and sexual orientation during adolescence. Our results have implications for the ways that we think about sexual orientation and its intersection with race and ethnicity, particularly with regard to educational environments. In closing we consider the implications of this work for future research, and for practice in communities and classrooms.

Most of the existing research on queer youth has been based on the experiences of White samples of GLB-identified youth. Our findings on the differences between White and racial / ethnic minority sexual minority youth provide a new lens through which to view that body of research. At least with regard to the educational environment, our study suggests that while queer youth of color are literal "double minorities," their experiences with oppression are not additive as the term might suggest. The results indicate that White sexual minority youth may in some ways be among those most at risk at school. New to a minority status, White sexual minority adolescents are uniquely vulnerable to compromised academic performance, as well as to the range of factors that characterize their educational experiences: negative school attitudes and experiences, and depressed educational expectations. Perhaps many of the consistent differences we see in past studies of LGB adolescents – whether related to education or not – are unique to White sexual minority youth. For example, the research community is finally reaching consensus that LGB adolescents are at greater risk than their peers for thoughts of and attempts at suicide (Remafedi, 1999). However, it is clear that most of that literature has been based on predominantly White samples. Could these sexual orientation differences in suicide be specific to White sexual minority youth? Are queer youth of color protected to some degree because they are better prepared to deal with the issues of discrimination and prejudice than their White peers?

If it is true that White sexual minority youth are at greater risk for compromised educational attitudes, experiences, and expectations than their heterosexual peers because they have not been socialized in a minority context, one implication is that sexual orientation may be simply another minority status. It is experienced by Whites for the first time, but essentially may be a routine status for racial / ethnic minority youth. We think that the link between race / ethnicity and sexual orientation is more complicated than that. Our findings on self-esteem indicate that sexual orientation is not just another minority status when it comes to emotions and self-appraisal – since most all youth, racial / ethnic minority or not – report depressed self-esteem. Sexual minority status is in fact variable in its effect on youth and their experiences; most important for this study is that this variability is related in part to race and ethnicity. It may be that for experiences, attitudes, expectations, and ultimately for achievement in school, sexual orientation matters most for White youth. On the other hand, compromised emotional health (such as self-esteem and perhaps depression and suicidality) may be relevant for all queer adolescents.

Ultimately, as with most research on under-studied topics, our work has left us with more questions than answers. While our findings do not support the argument that queer youth of color are doubly disadvantaged by their dual minority statuses, the results in no way discount the challenges that many queer youth of color face in their lives. What we need is more qualitative research like the studies reported in this volume – research that can specifically test some of the findings that we present here, but with detailed individual accounts of school experiences, aspirations, and educational and emotional outcomes. With our data we can only answer broad, general questions. Further, even given our large sample size, we are limited in the degree to which we can make assertions about gender differences, or about differences within the sexual orientation group. Our past research with these data indicates that the school experiences of youth reporting exclusive same-sex attraction are quite different from those that report attraction to both the same and the other sex (Russell, Seif, & Truong, 2000). Are there significant gender differences in the experiences of queer youth of color? How different is the experience of coming out as bisexual or transgender versus gay or lesbian in communities of color? Are White sexual minority youth at particular risk in school and for academic performance, and are all sexual minority youth equally at risk for compromised emotional health and self-appraisal? Further study, both quantitative and qualitative, can begin to delve into these important questions.

Finally, what are the implications of our findings for classrooms, and for teachers and educators? The finding that is consistent across racial and ethnic groups is that low social acceptance and negative attitudes toward school (not feeling close to people at school, not feeling a part of the school, and not feeling happy to be at school) are felt by all sexual minority youth. Clearly, there is much to be done in the classrooms in our schools to make them safer environments for queer students. Teachers must take leadership in creating climates that are tolerant and understanding of differences. In many cases, what is needed is education for teachers about these concerns. Past research has indicated that in the experiences of some youth, teachers are part of the problem (Pilkington & D’Augelli, 1995). Clearly, as is happening in many communities, they must become leaders in the solution.

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